abbreviation
An
abbreviation is a shortened version of a word or group of words. For example:
Co.
(Company)
approx. (approximately)
PR (public relations)
PTO (Please turn over)
Some
common abbreviations are of Latin terms:
etc
(et cetera = and so on)
eg (exempli gratia = for example)
NB (nota bene = note especially)
ie (id est = that is)
Names
of organisations are often abbreviated using the initial letters of each word.
For example:
the
EU (European Union)
the NHS (National Health Service)
IBM (International Business Machines)
Some
such abbreviations (for example, NATO, FIFA and UNESCO) are acronyms.
Some
words are abbreviated so that only a part of the original word is used.
Examples are:
phone
(telephone)
fridge (refrigerator)
bus (omnibus)
exam (examination).
accent
features
of pronunciation which vary according to the speaker's regional and social
origin. All oral language, including standard English, is spoken with an
accent. The term accent refers to pronunciation only.
see
also dialect
acronym
An
acronym is an abbreviation which is made up of the initial letters of a group of
words, and is pronounced as a single word. For example:
|
|
laser
|
(light
amplification by the stimulated |
|
|
Aids
|
(Acquired
immune deficiency syndrome) |
|
|
NATO
|
(North
Atlantic Treaty Organization) |
|
|
RAM
|
(Random
Access Memory) |
Acronyms
are to be contrasted with abbreviations in which the separate letters are
pronounced:
USA
(pronounced
as U-S-A)
POW (P-O-W)
EMI (E-M-I)
acrostic
a
poetic form which is organised by the initial letters of a key word, either at
the beginning of lines, or with lines arranged around them:
|
|
Whistling wildly |
Blowing |
|
|
In a |
rain |
|
|
Northern |
round |
|
|
Direction. |
and
round.
|
active and passive
Many verbs can be active or passive. For example, bite:
The
dog bit Ben. (active)
Ben was bitten by the dog. (passive)
In the active sentence, the subject (the dog) performs the action. In the passive sentence, the subject (Ben) is on the receiving end of the action. The two sentences give similar information, but there is a difference in focus. The first is about what the dog did; the second is about what happened to Ben.
All passive forms are made up of the verb be + past participle:
|
|
active |
Somebody
saw you. |
|
|
|
|
|
|
passive |
You
were seen. |
|
|
|
|
In a passive sentence, the 'doer' (or agent) may be identified using by ...:
Ben was bitten by the dog.
But very often, in passive sentences, the agent is unknown or insignificant, and therefore not identified:
The computer has been repaired.
Passive forms are common in impersonal, formal styles. For example:
It
was agreed that ... (compare We agreed that ...).
Application forms may be obtained from the address below.
adjective
An
adjective is a word that describes somebody or something. Old, white, busy, careful and horrible are all adjectives.
Adjectives either come before a noun, or after verbs such as be, get, seem, look (linking verbs):
|
|
a busy day |
I'm busy |
|
|
nice shoes |
those shoes look nice |
Adjectives
(and adverbs) can have comparative and superlative forms. The comparative form
is adjective + -er (for one-syllable adjectives, and some two-syllable) or more
+
adjective (for adjectives of two or more syllables):
old
- older
hot - hotter
easy - easier
dangerous - more dangerous
The
corresponding superlative forms are -est or most ...:
small
- smallest
big - biggest
funny - funniest
important - most important
adverb
Adverbs
give extra meaning to a verb, an adjective, another adverb or a whole sentence:
|
|
I
really enjoyed the party. |
(adverb
+ verb) |
Many
adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective, for example quickly, dangerously, nicely, but there are many
adverbs which do not end in -ly. Note too that some -ly words are adjectives, not
adverbs (eg lovely, silly, friendly).
In
many cases, adverbs tell us:
|
|
how
(manner) |
slowly, happily, dangerously, carefully |
Other
adverbs show
degree
of intensity:
very slow(ly) fairly
dangerous(ly) really good/well
the
attitude of the speaker to what he or she is saying:
perhaps obviously fortunately
connections
in meaning between sentences (see connective):
however furthermore finally
An
adverbial phrase is a group of words that functions in the same way as a
single adverb. For example: by car, to school, last week, three times a day, first of all, of course:
|
|
They left yesterday. (adverb) |
She looked at me strangely. (adverb) |
|
|
They left a few days ago. (adverbial phrase) |
She looked at me in a strange way. (adverbial phrase) |
Similarly,
an adverbial clause functions in the same way as an adverb. For example:
It
was raining yesterday. (adverb)
It was raining when we went out. (adverbial clause).
affix
a
morpheme which is not in itself a word, but is attached to a word. An affix can
be a prefix (intolerant, dislike) or a suffix (kindness, playing).
agreement
(or concord)
In
some cases the form of a verb changes according to its subject (so the verb and
subject 'agree'). This happens with the verb be:
I
am/he is/they are
I was/you were
and
the third person singular (he/she/it) of the present tense:
I
like/she likes
I don't/he doesn't
Note
that singular collective nouns (eg team, family, government) can take a singular or
plural verb form. For example:
The
team (= it) is playing well.
The team (= they) are playing well.
There
are a few cases where a determiner must agree with a noun according to
whether it is singular or plural. For example:
this
house these houses
much traffic many cars
alliteration
a
phrase where adjacent or closely connected words begin with the same phoneme: one
wet wellington; free phone; several silent, slithering snakes.
ambiguity
a
phrase or statement which has more than one possible interpretation. This
sometimes arises from unclear grammatical relationships. For example, in the
phrase: 'police shot man with knife', it is not specified whether the man
had the knife or the police used the knife to shoot the man. Both
interpretations are possible, although only one is logical. In poetry, ambiguity
may extend meanings beyond the literal.
The
sentence: 'Walking dogs can be fun' has two possible interpretations: 'it
is fun to take dogs for walks' or 'dogs which go walking are fun'.
Ambiguity
is often a source of humour. Ambiguity may be accidental or deliberate.
analogy
perception
of similarity between two things; relating something known to something new; in
spelling, using known spellings to spell unknown words: night-knight-right-sight-light-fright; in reading, using
knowledge of words to attempt previously unseen words.
Emphasis
on analogy encourages learners to generalise existing knowledge to new
situations.
In
their learning of grammar, pupils often apply affixes incorrectly by analogy: goed,
comed, mouses. Analogy may also be used in literature to draw a parallel between two
situations, for example using animal behaviour to draw attention to human
behaviour.
anecdote
a
brief written or spoken account of an amusing incident, often used to
illustrate a point.
antonym
a
word with a meaning opposite to another: hot - cold, light - dark, light -
heavy. A
word may have more than one word as an antonym: cold - hot/warm; big -
small/tiny/little/titchy.
apostrophe
(')
An
apostrophe is a punctuation mark used to indicate either omitted letters or
possession.
omitted
letters
We
use an apostrophe for the omitted letter(s) when a verb is contracted (=
shortened). For example:
|
I'm (I am) |
who's (who is/has) |
|
they've (they have) |
he'd (he had/would) |
|
we're (we are) |
it's (it is/has) |
|
would've (would have) |
she'll (she will) |
In
contracted negative forms, not is contracted to n't and joined to the verb: isn't, didn't, couldn't etc.
In
formal written style, it is more usual to use the full form.
There
are a few other cases where an apostrophe is used to indicate letters that are
in some sense 'omitted' in words other than verbs, eg let's (= let us), o'clock (= of the clock).
Note
the difference between its (= 'belonging to it') and it's (= 'it is' or 'it has'):
The company is to close one of its factories. (no apostrophe)
The factory employs 800 people. It's (= it is) the largest factory in
the town. (apostrophe
necessary)
possession
We
use an apostrophe + s for the possessive form :
my mother's car
Joe and Fiona's house
the cat's tail
James's ambition
a week's holiday
With
a plural 'possessor' already ending in s (eg parents), an apostrophe is added
to the end of the word:
my parents' car
the girls' toilets
But
irregular plurals (eg men, children) take an apostrophe + s:
children's clothes
The
regular plural form (-s) is often confused with possessive -'s:
I bought some apples. (not apple's)
Note that the possessive words yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, and its are not written with an apostrophe.
appendix
a
section added to a document which offers non-essential or illustrative
information.
article
A,
an and the
are
articles. A (an before a vowel sound) is the indefinite article; the is the definite article.
Articles are a type of determiner.
ascender
In
written or typed script, many letters have the same height: a, c, e, m, n,
o, r, s, u, v, w, x, z, (although in some scripts, z has a descender). Some letters have
parts which extend beyond this: b, d, f, h, k, l, t: These parts are called ascenders.
assonance
repetition
of vowel sounds: crying time; hop-scotch; great flakes; between trees; the
kind knight rides by.
asterisk
(*)
An
asterisk is a symbol used to refer the reader to footnotes below the text. It
can also be used to replace letters in taboo words.
audience
the
people addressed by a text. The term refers to listeners, readers of books,
film/TV audiences and users of information technology.
autobiography
a
life story of an individual written by that person. Generally written in the first
person.
auxiliary
verbs
These
are verbs that are used together with other verbs. For example:
we
are going
Lucy has arrived
can you play
In
these sentences, going, arrived and play are the main verbs. Are, has and can are auxiliary verbs, and
add extra meaning to the main verb.
The
most common auxiliary verbs are be, have and do (all of which can also be
main verbs).
Be
is used
in continuous forms (be + -ing) and in passive forms:
We are going away. Was the car damaged?
Have
is used
in perfect verb forms:
Lucy has arrived. I haven't finished.
Do
is used
to make questions and negatives in the simple present and past tenses:
Do you know the answer? I didn't see anybody.
More
than one auxiliary verb can be used together. For example:
I
have been waiting for ages. (have and been are auxiliary verbs)
The
remaining auxiliary verbs are modal verbs, eg can, will.
a
poem or song which tells a story. Characterised by short, regular verses with a
rhyme scheme.
bibliography
a
list of texts provided for readers. The list may contain:
a. texts consulted by a writer;
b. texts written on a particular
subject;
c. texts written by a particular
author.
biography
a life-story of an individual written by another
author. Generally written in the third person.
blank verse
poetry written with rhythm and metre, but without
rhyme. Especially linked with iambic pentameter (ten syllable line with
unstressed/stressed syllable pattern) as in the work of Shakespeare.
blend
the process of combining phonemes into larger
elements such as clusters, syllables and words. Also refers to a combination of
two or more phonemes, particularly at the beginning and end of words, st,
str, nt, pl, nd.
blurb
information about a book, designed to attract
readers, usually printed on the back or inside flap of book jacket. Informs the
prospective reader about genre, setting, etc
a poem in which the calligraphy, the formation of the
letters or the font selected, represents an aspect of the poem's subject, as
in: thin, ancient, growth. A poem about fear might be written
in shaky letters to represent trembling.
character
an individual in a story, play or poem whose
personality can be inferred from their actions and dialogue. Writers may also
use physical description of the individual to give readers clues about a
character.
chronological writing
writing organised in terms of sequences of events.
cinquain
a poem with a standard syllable pattern, like a
haiku, invented by Adelaide Crapsey, an American poet. Five lines and a total
of 22 syllables in the sequence: 2, 4, 6, 8, 2.
clause
A clause is a group of words that expresses an event
(she drank some water) or a situation (she was thirsty/she wanted a drink). It usually contains a subject
(she in the examples) and verb
(drank/was/wanted).
Note how a clause differs from a phrase:
|
|
a
big dog |
(a phrase - this refers to 'a big dog' but doesn't say what the dog did or what happened to it) |
|
|
a big dog chased me |
(a clause - the dog did something) |
|
|
|
|
A sentence is made up of one or more clauses:
|
|
It was raining. |
(one clause) |
|
|
It was raining and we were cold. |
(two main clauses joined by and) |
|
|
It was raining when we went out. |
(main clause containing a subordinate clause - the subordinate clause is underlined) |
A main clause is complete on its own and can form a
complete sentence (eg It was raining.). A subordinate clause (when we
went out)
is part of the main clause and cannot exist on its own. In the following
examples, the subordinate clauses are underlined:
You'll hurt yourself if you're not careful.
Although it was cold, the weather was pleasant enough.
Where are the biscuits (that) I bought this morning?
John, who was very angry, began shouting.
What you said was not true.
Although most clauses require a subject and verb,
some subordinate clauses do not. In many such cases, the verb be can be understood. For
example:
The weather, although rather cold, was
pleasant enough.
(= although it was rather cold)
When in Rome, do as the Romans do.
(= when you are in Rome)
Glad to be home, George sat down in his favourite armchair.
(= he was glad to be home)
see also adverbial clause, noun clause, participle, phrase,
relative clause, sentence
clerihew
a four line comic verse with two rhyming couplets. Lines may be of any length. The first line is the name of the person about whom the rhyme is written:
Jeremiah Smith
Is boring to be with
The company he doth keep
Will send a person to sleep
Named after its inventor E. Clerihew Bentley who died
in 1956.
clichŽ
an over-used phrase or opinion: sick as a parrot;
her eyes shone like stars; too many cooks spoil the broth. May be idiomatic.
cloze
an exercise in which certain words are deleted from a
text and a gap left. The learner's task is to supply the missing words. The
teacher chooses which words to omit, depending on the learning task. Words can
be deleted in a specific way, eg adjectives, conjunctions, or randomly (every
nth word). Cloze procedure can be used to measure readability.
coherence and cohesion
An effective text needs to be coherent and cohesive.
The term coherence refers to the underlying logic and
consistency of a text. The ideas expressed should be relevant to one another so
that the reader can follow the meaning.
The term cohesion refers to the grammatical features
in a text which enable the parts to fit together. One way of creating cohesion
is the use of connectives:
I sat down and turned on the television. Just
then, I heard a strange noise.
The phrase 'just then' relates these events in
time.
Cohesion is also achieved by the use of words (such
as pronouns) that refer back to other parts of the text. In these examples, such
words are underlined:
There was a man waiting at the door. I had never
seen him before.
We haven't got a car. We used to have one, but we sold it.
I wonder whether Sarah will pass her driving test. I hope she does.
(= I
hope Sarah passes her driving test)
colloquial
belonging to conversation/language used in familiar,
informal contexts. Contrasted with formal or literary language.
colon (:)
A colon is a punctuation mark used to introduce a list
or a following example (as in this glossary). It may also be used before a
second clause that expands or illustrates the first:
He was very cold: the temperature was below zero.
comma (,)
A comma is a punctuation mark used to help the reader
by separating parts of a sentence. It sometimes corresponds to a pause in
speech.
In particular we use commas:
to separate items in a list (but not usually before and):
My favourite sports are football, tennis, swimming and gymnastics.
I got home, had a bath and went to bed.
to mark off extra information:
Jill, my boss, is 28 years old.
after a subordinate clause which begins a sentence:
Although it was cold, we didn't wear our coats.
with many connecting adverbs (eg however, on the other hand, anyway, for example):
Anyway, in the end I decided not to go.
commentary
a set of notes which explain, or give further detail
or information on a text. For example, a commentary may explain imagery in a
poem or section of prose; alternatively, it may draw viewers' attention to
particular aspects of a piece of film. The purpose of a commentary is to deepen
comprehension.
complement
In the sentences Lisa is a fast runner or Lisa is very fit, 'Lisa' is the subject and 'is' is the verb. Neither sentence has an object. The rest of the sentence (a fast runner/very fit) is called a complement. A complement usually tells you something about the subject of the sentence (especially after the verb be but also after other linking verbs such as seem, look, get, become ). In the examples the complement is underlined:
|
|
These apples are delicious. |
Why did you become a teacher? |
|
|
You don't look very well. |
This is John. He's a friend of mine. |
A complement can also refer to the object of a sentence. For example:
I found the book very interesting. (very interesting refers to the book, which is the object of found)
compound word
a word made up of two other words: football,
headrest, broomstick.
comprehension
the level of understanding of a text.
literal
the reader has access to the surface details of the
text, and can recall details which have been directly related.
inferential
the reader can read meanings which are not directly
explained. For example, the reader would be able to make inferences about the
time of year from information given about temperature, weather, etc and from
characters' behaviour and dialogue.
evaluative
the reader can offer an opinion on the effectiveness
of the text for its purpose.
concrete poem
a poem in which the layout of the words represents an
aspect of the subject. In some cases, these poems are presented as sculptures.
Concrete poems blur the distinction between visual and linguistic art, as do
other shape poems.
conditional
A conditional sentence is one in which one thing
depends upon another. Conditional sentences often contain the conjunction if:
I'll help you if I can.
If the weather's bad, we might not go out.
Other conjunctions used in conditionals are unless, providing, provided and as long as.
A conditional sentence can refer to an imaginary
situation. For example:
I would help you if I could. (but in fact I can't)
What would you do if you were in my position?
If the weather had been better, we could have gone to the beach.
The term 'conditional' is sometimes used to refer to
the form would + verb: would go, would help etc.
see also auxiliary verb
conjunction
A word used to link clauses within a sentence. For
example, in the following sentences, but and if are conjunctions:
It was raining but it wasn't cold.
We won't go out if the weather's bad.
There are two kinds of conjunction:
a. Co-ordinating conjunctions (and, but, or and so). These join (and are
placed between) two clauses of equal weight.
Do you want to go now or shall we wait a
bit longer?
And, but and or are also used to join
words or phrases within a clause.
b. Subordinating conjunctions (eg when, while, before, after, since, until, if, because, although, that). These go at the
beginning of a subordinate clause:
We were hungry because we hadn't eaten all
day.
Although we'd had plenty to eat, we were still hungry.
We were hungry when we got home.
see also clause, connective
connective
A connective is a word or phrase that links clauses
or sentences. Connectives can be conjunctions (eg but, when, because) or connecting adverbs
(eg however, then, therefore).
Connecting adverbs (and adverbial phrases and
clauses) maintain the cohesion of a text in several basic ways, including:
|
|
addition |
also, furthermore, moreover |
|
|
opposition |
however, nevertheless, on the other hand |
|
|
reinforcing |
besides, anyway, after all |
|
|
explaining |
for example, in other words, that is to say |
|
|
listing |
first(ly), first of all, finally |
|
|
indicating result |
therefore, consequently, as a result |
|
|
indicating time |
just then, meanwhile, later |
Commas are often used to mark off
connecting adverbs or adverbial phrases or clauses:
First of all, I want to say É
I didn't think much of the film. Helen, on the other hand, enjoyed it.
Connecting adverbs and conjunctions function
differently. Conjunctions (like but and although) join clauses within
a sentence. Connecting adverbs (like however) connect ideas but the clauses
remain separate sentences:
I was angry but I didn't say anything. (but is a conjunction - one
sentence)
Although I was angry, I didn't say anything. (although is a conjunction - one
sentence)
I was angry. However, I didn't say anything. (however is an adverb - two
sentences)
consonant
A consonant is a speech sound which obstructs the
flow of air through the vocal tract; for example, the flow of air is obstructed
by the lips in p and by the tongue in l. The term also refers to those
letters of the alphabet whose typical value is to represent such sounds, namely
all except a,e,i,o,u. The letter y can represent a consonant sound (yes) or a vowel sound (happy).
contraction
see apostrophe
correspondence
matching of two separate types of information: for
example, letters or letter strings with the phonemes they represent; matching
one written with one spoken word.
couplet
two consecutive lines of poetry which are paired in
length or rhyme.
cue
a source of information. In reading, children may use
contextual, grammatical, graphic and phonological cues to work out unfamiliar
words. Fluent readers orchestrate different cues and cross-check.
A dash is a punctuation mark used especially in
informal writing (such as letters to friends, postcards or notes). Dashes may
be used to replace other punctuation marks (colons, semi-colons, commas) or brackets:
It was a great day outÐeverybody enjoyed it.
declarative
see sentence.
decode
literally, this means to convert a message
written/spoken in code into language which is easily understood. In reading,
this refers to children's ability to read words - to translate the visual code
of the letters into a word.
derivation
tracing the origin of a word or saying.
descender
In written or typed script, many letters have the
same height: a, c, e, m, n, o, r, s, u, v, w, x, z. Some letters have parts
which extend below this: g, j, p, q, y. These parts are called descenders.
In some fonts, f and z have descenders.
determiner
Determiners include many of the most frequent English
words, eg the, a, my, this. Determiners are used with nouns (this book, my best friend, a new car) and they limit (ie
determine) the reference of the noun in some way.
Determiners include:
|
|
articles |
a/an, the |
|
|
demonstratives |
this/that, these/those |
|
|
possessives |
my/your/his/her/its/our/their |
|
|
quantifiers |
some, any, no, many, much, few, little, both, all, either, neither, each, every, enough |
|
|
numbers |
three, fifty, three thousand etc |
|
|
some
question words |
which
(which
car?),
what (what
size?),
whose (whose coat?) |
When these words are used as determiners, they are
followed by a noun (though not necessarily immediately):
this book is yours
some new houses
which colour do you prefer?
Many determiners can also be used as pronouns. These include the
demonstratives, question words, numbers and most of the quantifiers. When used
as pronouns, these words are not followed by a noun - their reference includes
the noun:
this is yours (= this book, this money, etc)
I've got some
which do you prefer?
dialect
A dialect is a variety of a language used in a
particular area and which is distinguished by certain features of grammar or
vocabulary. Examples of such features in some English dialects are:
non-standard subject + verb patterns, eg I knows,
you was, he like
past tense forms, eg I done, I seen
various individual words and expressions, eg owt/nowt for anything/nothing
see also double negative, standard English
dialogue
a conversation between two parties. May be spoken or
written.
digraph
two letters representing one phoneme: bath;
train; ch/ur/ch.
diminutive
a term which implies smallness. This may reflect
actual physical lack of stature; alternatively, it may be used as a term of
endearment. The word may be a recognised word, eg Tiny Tim, Little Dorrit, or
may be created by the addition of a suffix to a name or noun: lambkin,
starlet, kitchenette.
direct speech and indirect speech
There are two ways of reporting what somebody says,
direct speech and indirect speech.
In direct speech, we use the speaker's original words
(as in a speech bubble). In text, speech marks ('É' or "É" Ñ also called inverted
commas or quotes) mark the beginning and end of direct speech:
Helen said, 'I'm going home'.
'What do you want?' I asked.
In indirect (or reported) speech, we report what was
said but do not use the exact words of the original speaker. Typically we
change pronouns and verb tenses, and speech marks are not used:
Helen said (that) she was going home.
I asked them what they wanted.
discrimination
Discrimination is the ability to perceive the
difference between two things, for example phonemes. Some pairs of sounds
are more difficult for children to discriminate between, for example k/g,
t/d, and
p/b.
discussion text
a text (written or spoken) which presents all sides
of an issue. A discussion text typically begins by outlining the issues before
making points for and against. These points are backed up with evidence. It
often concludes by stating an opinion in favour of one particular side, or by
asking the reader/listener to decide. An example of a discussion text would be
presenting arguments for and against school uniform, or for and against a new
runway at Manchester Airport.
double negative
In non-standard English, a double negative may be
used. For example:
We didn't see nobody.
I never took nothing.
Such double negatives are not acceptable in standard
English.
The equivalent standard forms would be:
We didn't see anybody.
I didn't take anything.
draft
preliminary written form of document; a text may develop through a
number of drafts before reaching final draft stage, at which time it may be
published. The process of working on a document at the composition stage is
called drafting.
to modify written work, either own or another's, in
preparation for publication. This process takes place after drafting (composition), revising
(major
restructuring) and before proof-reading (a final check for typographical,
spelling errors, etc). It involves checking of facts, minor improvements to
style at sentence level, and checking for accuracy and agreement.
elegy
a poem or song which is a lament, perhaps
for someone or something which has died.
ellipsis
Ellipsis is the omission of words in order to avoid
repetition. For example:
I don't think it will rain but it might. (= it might rain)
'Where were you born?' 'Bradford.' (= I was born in Bradford)
An ellipsis is also the term used for three dots (É)
which
show that something has been omitted or is incomplete.
empathy
identifying with another: a character in a story, or
an historical figure; the ability to see situations from the other's point of
view. Literally 'feeling with' or 'feeling in'.
epic
a poem or story relating the adventures of a heroic
or legendary figure, often related to national identity, as Odysseus or Arthur.
epitaph
engraved wording on a tombstone. May be selected by
the deceased or his/her family. Some will choose extracts from the Bible or
from literature; others will compose their own epitaph.
etymology
the study of the origin and history of words.
eulogy
writing or speech, the purpose of which is praise of
a named person or thing. In America, this refers specifically to funeral
oration.
exclamation
An exclamation is an utterance expressing emotion
(joy, wonder, anger, surprise, etc) and is usually followed in writing by an exclamation
mark (!).
Exclamations can be interjections:
Oh dear!
Good grief!
Ow!
Some exclamations begin with what or how:
What a beautiful day!
How stupid (he is)!
What a quiet little girl.
Exclamations like these are a special type of sentence
('exclamative')
and may have no verb.
see also interjection, sentence
exclamation mark (!)
An exclamation mark is used at the end of a sentence
(which
may be exclamative, imperative or declarative) or an interjection to indicate strong
emotion:
What a pity!
Get out!
It's a goal!
Oh dear!
See also exclamation, sentence
exclamative
see sentence
explanation text
Explanation text is written to explain how or why
something happens, eg how river valleys are formed or why the Romans built
roads. Typically such text consists of a description of the phenomenon and an
explanatory sequence. The writer will normally need to use connectives expressing cause and
effect (eg so, therefore, as a result) and time (eg later, meanwhile).
The passive often occurs in writing of this
kind. For example:
Roman roads are considered to be a miracle
of engineering.
a short story which is devised and written to convey
a useful moral lesson. Animals are often used as characters, as in Aesop's
Fables.
See parable
fact
accepted, observable or demonstrable truth. What is
accepted as truth may change over time, in the light of new evidence. Facts
must be supported by evidence; if evidence is not available, they can only be
given the status of opinion.
Fiction texts often make use of factual information,
as in the case of historical fiction, or fiction which includes information
about science or art, etc. In these texts, it is important that writers
research the appropriate subject.
fairy tale
a story written for, or told to, children which
includes elements of magic and magical folk, such as fairies, elves, goblins.
fiction
text which is invented by a writer or speaker.
Characters, settings and events are created by the originator. In some cases,
one of these elements may be factual: for example, the setting may be a named
city or area; the text may be based on an historical event.
figurative language
use of metaphor or simile to create a particular
impression or mood. A writer may develop an idea of a character's military
approach to life by using phrases and words which are linked with the army,
such as he was something of a loose cannon (metaphor); he rifled through
the papers; his arm shot out; he marched into the room; he paraded his
knowledge. To link a character with a bird, she/he may use: he flew down the
stairs; they twittered to each other; he perched on his chair; his feathers
were definitely ruffled.
flow chart
a diagrammatic representation of either:
a. events in a story;
b. a process; or
c. an activity.
A flow chart illustrates sequences of events and
explores possible consequences of decisions.
footnote
additional information which is printed at the bottom
of the page rather than in the main body of the text.
format
the way in which a text is arranged or presented, for
example as a book, leaflet, essay, video, audiotape. May also relate to the
structure of the text, for example, the use of headings and sub-headings,
diagrams/photographs with captions.
free verse
poetry which is not constrained by patterns of rhyme
or rhythm.
the way in which elements of a text are arranged to
match its purpose. This structure can be observed by readers, and writers will
use this knowledge to structure their writing, depending on their purpose.
See discussion text, explanation text, instruction text, narrative text, recount text, report text
genre
this term refers to different types of writing, each
with its own specific characteristics which relate to origin (legend/folk tale)
or reader interest area - the types of books individuals particularly choose to
read: adventure, romance, science fiction.
Texts with these specific features - often related to
story elements, patterns of language, structure, vocabulary - may be described
as belonging to a particular genre. These attributes are useful in discussing
text and in supporting development of writing skills.
Texts may operate at different levels, and so
represent more than one genre; some will be combinations, for example
historical romance.
glossary
part of a text, often an appendix, which defines terms the
writer/editor considers may be unfamiliar to the intended audience.
grammar
the conventions which govern the relationships
between words in any language. Includes the study of word order and changes in
words: use of inflections, etc. Study of grammar is important, as it enhances
both reading and writing skills; it supports effective communication.
grammatical boundary
A grammatical boundary is the edge of a grammatical
unit (a sentence, clause or phrase) which, in writing, may be indicated by a
punctuation mark such as a comma, full stop, colon, semi-colon or dash.
grapheme
written representation of a sound; may consist of one
or more letters; for example the phoneme s can be represented by the graphemes s,
se, c, sc and
ce as
in sun, mouse, city, science.
guided reading
a classroom activity in which pupils are taught in
groups according to reading ability. The teacher works with each group on a
text carefully selected to offer an appropriate level of challenge to the
group. Usefully thought of as a 'mini lesson'. Challenge may be in terms of
reading cues and strategies, language and vocabulary, or sophisticated aspects
of grammar, inference, skimming and scanning.
Guided reading sessions have a similar format:
a. the teacher introduces the text,
and sets the purpose for reading, for example reminding pupils of strategies
and cues which will be useful, or asking them to gather particular information;
b. pupils read independently, solving
problems as they read through the text. More fluent readers will read silently.
The teacher is available to offer help when it is needed. S/he then guides
pupils to appropriate cues, for example use of syntax, picture cues, initial
letter;
c. the teacher discusses the text with
the pupils, drawing attention to successful strategies and focusing on
comprehension, referring back to the initial focus.
guided writing
a classroom activity in which pupils are grouped by
writing ability. The teacher works with each group on a task carefully selected
to offer an appropriate level of challenge to the group. Usefully thought of as
a 'mini lesson'. Challenge may be in terms of spelling, letter formation,
simple punctuation, language and vocabulary, or sophisticated aspects of
generic structure, planning and editing, use of imagery and so on.
Japanese form. The poem has three lines and 17 syllables in total in the pattern 5, 7, 5:
Loving, faithful, fun
Trusting and loyal and true
Chocolate-brown Suki
half-rhyme
words which almost rhyme: polish/relish; pun/man.
homograph
words which have the same spelling as another, but
different meaning: the calf was eating/my calf was aching; the North Pole/totem
pole; he is a Pole. Pronunciation may be different: a lead pencil/the dog's lead;
furniture polish/Polish people. A homonym.
homonym
words which have the same spelling or pronunciation
as another, but different meaning or origin. May be a homograph or homophone.
homophone
words which have the same sound as another but
different meaning or different spelling: read/reed; pair/pear;
right/write/rite. A homonym.
hyphen (-)
A hyphen is sometimes used to join the two parts of a
compound noun, as in golf-ball and proof-read. But it is much more usual for such
compounds to be written as single words (eg football, headache, bedroom) or as separate words
without a hyphen (golf ball, stomach ache, dining room, city centre).
However, hyphens are used in the following cases:
a. in compound adjectives and longer phrases used as
modifiers before nouns:
a foul-smelling substance
a well-known painter
a German-English dictionary
a one-in-a-million chance
a state-of-the-art computer
a ten-year-old girl
b. in many compound nouns where the second part
is a short word like in, off, up or by:
a break-in
a write-off
a mix-up
a passer-by
c. in many words beginning with the prefixes co-,
non- and
ex-:
co-operate
non-existent
ex-husband
Hyphens are also used to divide words at the end of a
line of print.
An idiom is an expression which is not meant
literally and whose meaning cannot be deduced from knowledge of the individual
words. For example:
You look a bit under the weather this
morning. Are you all right?
Try and keep to the point of the discussion. You're always introducing red
herrings.
You and I have the same problems - we're in the same boat.
That name rings a bell. I've heard it before somewhere.
imagery
use of language to create a vivid sensory image -
often visual. May include:
|
|
vocabulary |
choice
of synonym, for example sprinted/ran/raced, selection of adjectives and
adverbs |
|
|
simile |
he
ran like the wind |
|
|
metaphor |
his
feet had wings |
|
|
|
|
see figurative language
imperative
see sentence
indirect speech
see direct speech
infinitive
The infinitive is the base form of the verb without
any additional endings. For example, play is an infinitive form (as opposed to
playing,
played or
plays).
The infinitive is used with many auxiliary verbs:
I will play
he should play
do you play?
The infinitive is often used with to (to play, to eat etc):
I ought to play
I want to play
I'm going to play
it would be nice to play
The simple present tense (I play, they play etc) has the same form as
the infinitive, except for the third person singular (he/she/it plays).
inflection
Inflection is a change to the ending of a word to
indicate tense, number or other grammatical features. For example:
walk - walks/walked/walking
shoe - shoes
old - older/oldest
see also suffix
information text
text written to inform. Examples include explanation, report, procedure or recount.
innovation on text
a classroom strategy in which the teacher uses a
familiar text as the model for a piece of new writing: Georgina and the
Dragon; The Very Hungry Kittens; Burglar Barry.
instruction text
text written to help readers achieve certain goals.
The text may consist of a statement of the intended outcome, the materials
needed to achieve it and a sequence of actions in chronological order.
Connectives will often be time-related; verbs may be imperative, and will often
be placed at the beginning of sentences to form a series of commands. Examples
of this type of text include recipes and instructions.
interjection
An interjection is a word like Ouch!, Oh! or Damn! expressing an emotion
such as pain, surprise, anger, etc. An interjection is followed by an exclamation
mark (!).
see also exclamation
internal rhyme
placement of rhyming words within a line of poetry: 'Though
the
threat of snow was growing slowly...'
see also assonance and rhyme
intonation
Intonation is the way in which changes in the musical
pitch of the voice are used to structure speech and to contribute to meaning.
Among other functions, intonation may distinguish questions from statements (as
in 'Sure?' 'Sure!'), or indicate contrastive and emotive stress (as in 'I said two, not three', or 'I just hate
that
advertisement!').
language used by a particular profession or interest
group. May include vocabulary unfamiliar to those outside the group, sometimes
deliberately.
jingle
a short verse or line used to attract attention and
be memorable. May be based on alliteration or rhyme. Often associated with
advertising.
a compound expression used in Old English and Norse poetry, which named something without using its name, for example mouse catcher = cat. Anglo-Saxons often used kennings to name their swords: death bringer. A poem made of kennings would be a list of such expressions about one subject:
MY DOG
ankle biter
bone cruncher
night howler
rabbit catcher
fur pillow.
a traditional story about heroic characters such as
King Arthur, which may be based on truth, but which has been embellished over
the years. Also refers to the wording on maps and charts which explains the
symbols used.
letter string
a group of letters which together represent a phoneme
or morpheme.
limerick
A five-line comic verse following the syllable
pattern 8 8 6 6 8 with the rhyme scheme a a b b a. Early limericks, such as
the nonsense verse of Edward Lear, repeat line 1 in line 5. However, recent
verse does not always follow this model.
literacy
communication skill. The term literacy originally, and most
often, applied to written communication; however, it can also be applied to
other forms, as in media literacy, computer literacy.
logogram
a symbol or character which represents a morpheme or word. A logographic
system contrasts with an alphabetic-phonetic system, such as English, in which
symbols relate to sounds rather than meaning. There are a number of logograms
which would be instantly recognisable to those using alphabetic systems, for
example £, &, %.
the language we use when talking about language
itself. It includes words like sentence, noun, paragraph, preposition. Those who understand
these concepts are able to talk about language quite precisely; thus,
acquisition of metalanguage is seen as a crucial step in developing awareness
of and proficiency in communication, particularly written language.
metaphor
where the writer writes about something as if it were
really something else. Fowler describes it as an 'imaginative substitution'.
For example: he is an ass; love's meteor. A poisoned apple passed along from
generation to generation (McGough).
mnemonic
a device to aid memory, for instance to learn
particular spelling patterns or spellings: I Go Home
Tonight; There is a rat in separate.
modal verb
The modal verbs are:
can/could
will/would
shall/should
may/might
must/ought
These auxiliary verbs are used to express such ideas as possibility, willingness, prediction, speculation, deduction and necessity. They are all followed by the infinitive, and ought is followed by to + infinitive:
I can help you.
We might go out tonight.
You ought to eat something.
Stephanie will be here soon.
I wouldn't do that if I were you.
I must go now.
These verbs can occur with other auxiliary verbs (be and have):
I'll be leaving at 11.30.
You should have asked me.
They must have been working.
In this context have is unstressed and therefore identical in speech to unstressed of; this is why the misspelling of for standard have or 've is not uncommon.
modelling
In literacy, this refers to demonstration of an
aspect of reading or writing by an expert for learners. This would support
direct instruction.
monologue
a text spoken by a lone speaker. In dramatic
situations, this may be a 'one person show'; in other situations, it may refer
to a speaker who monopolises the conversation.
morpheme
the smallest unit of meaning. A word may consist of
one morpheme (house), two morphemes (house/s; hous/ing) or three or more
morphemes (house/keep/ing; un/happi/ness). Suffixes and prefixes are morphemes.
myth
an ancient traditional story of gods or heroes which
addresses a problem or concern of human existence. May include an explanation
of some fact or phenomenon.
a poem which tells a story: 'Hiawatha', 'Charge of
the Light Brigade'. Often a ballad.
narrative text
text which re-tells events, often in chronological
sequence. May be purely fictional, or include some information. May be in prose
or poetic form.
non-chronological writing
writing organised without reference to time sequence.
Typically, writing organised by characteristics and attributes, for example, a
report on a town might be organised into population, situation, facilities.
noun
A noun is a word that denotes somebody or something.
In the sentence My younger sister won some money in a competition, 'sister',
'money' and
'competition' are nouns.
Many nouns (countable nouns) can be singular (only one) or plural (more than one). For
example sister/sisters, problem/problems, party/parties. Other nouns (mass
nouns) do not normally occur in the plural. For example: butter, cotton, electricity, money, happiness.
A collective noun is a word that refers to a group.
For example, crowd, flock, team. Although these are singular in form,
we often think of them as plural in meaning and use them with a plural verb.
For example, if we say The team have won all their games so
far, we
think of 'the team' as 'they' (rather than 'it').
Proper nouns are the names of people, places,
organisations, etc. These normally begin with a capital letter: Amanda, Birmingham, Microsoft, Islam, November.
Noun phrase is a wider term than 'noun'. It can
refer to a single noun (money), a pronoun (it) or a group of words that functions
in the same way as a noun in a sentence, for example:
a lot of money
my younger sister
a new car
the best team in the world
Similarly, a noun clause functions in the same way
as a noun. For example:
The story was not true. (noun)
What you said was not true. (noun clause)
public notice of the death of an individual. May
include an account of the life of the person.
object
see subject
ode
lyric poem usually addressed to the subject, so
written in the second person. There is no fixed rhyme or rhythm pattern. Language
may be unusual, perhaps self-consciously 'poetic': Thou still unravish'd
bride of quietness... (Keats, 'On a Grecian Urn').
onomatopoeia
words which echo sounds associated with their
meaning: clang, hiss, crash, cuckoo.
onset
the onset of a word or syllable is the initial
consonant or consonant cluster: clang; trike; sun. Some words or syllables
have no onset: or; out; end; at; on; earth.
see rime
opinion
a belief held by an individual or group of individuals
for which there is insufficient evidence for it to be accepted as fact. May be presented as
fact in writing.
a word or phrase which is the same when read
left-right or right-left: madam; mum; dad; eve; pup; Madam, I'm Adam.
parable
a short story told to illustrate a moral lesson or
duty. Parables are often associated with the New Testament; however, many
stories, including modern texts, may be classed as parables.
see fable
paragraph
a section of a piece of writing. A new paragraph
marks a change of focus, a change of time, a change of place or a change of
speaker in a passage of dialogue.
A new paragraph begins on a new line, usually with a
one-line gap separating it from the previous paragraph. Some writers also
indent the first line of a new paragraph.
Paragraphing helps writers to organise their
thoughts, and helps readers to follow the story line, argument or dialogue.
parenthesis
A parenthesis is a word or phrase inserted into a
sentence to explain or elaborate. It may be placed in brackets or between dashes
or commas:
Sam and Emma (his oldest children) are coming to
visit him next weekend.
Margaret is generally happy Ñ she sings in the mornings! Ñ but responsibility
weighs her down.
Sarah is, I believe, our best student.
The term parentheses can also refer to the brackets
themselves.
parody
a literary caricature: a version of a story or poem
which emphasises particular aspects of language or form to humorous effect.
part of speech
see word class
participle
Verbs have a present participle and a past
participle.
present participle
The present participle ends in -ing (working, reading, going etc). Although it is
called 'present', it is used in all continuous forms: she is going, she was going, she will be
going, she would have been going, etc.
The -ing ending is also used for a verb
functioning as a noun. For example: I enjoy reading, Reading is
important.
('Reading' is used as a noun in these examples.) This -ing form is sometimes called
a verbal noun or a gerund.
past participle
The past participle often ends in -ed (worked, played) but many common verbs
are irregular and have other endings, eg -t (kept), -n (flown), and -en (stolen).
Past participles are used:
a. after have to make perfect forms: I've worked, he has fallen, we should have
gone
b. after be (is/was etc) to make passive forms: I was asked, they are kept, it has been
stolen
Here too, the name is misleading, because passive
forms need not refer to the past: A toast will be drunk.
Participles (present and past) are sometimes used as
adjectives: the falling leaves, stolen goods. They can also be used to introduce
subordinate clauses, for example:
Being a student, Tom doesn't have much money.
Written in 1923, the book has been translated into twenty-five
languages.
see also active and passive, tense and verb
passive
see active
person
In grammar, a distinction is made between first,
second and third person.
One uses the first person when referring to oneself (I/we); the second person when
referring to one's listener or reader (you); and the third person when
referring to somebody or something else (he/she/it/they/my friend/the books etc).
In some cases the form of the verb changes according
to person:
I/we/you/they know
I/we/you/they have
we/you/they were
he/she knows
he/she/it has
I/he/she/it was
see also agreement
personification
a form of metaphor in which language relating to human
action, motivation and emotion is used to refer to non-human agents or objects
or abstract concepts: the weather is smiling on us today; Love is blind.
persuasive text
text which aims to persuade the reader. A persuasive
text typically consists of a statement of the viewpoint, arguments and evidence
for this thesis, possibly some arguments and evidence supporting a different
view, and a final summary or recommendation.
Connectives will be related to reasoning (therefore,
however).
An example of such a text would be an essay on
banning fox-hunting or recycling, or whether Roald Dahl was the greatest writer
in English. Advertisements are forms of persuasive text.
see also discussion text
phoneme
A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit of sound
in a word. There are approximately 44 phonemes in English (the number varies
depending on the accent). A phoneme may have variant pronunciations in
different positions; for example, the first and last sounds in the word
'little' are variants of the phoneme /l/. A phoneme may be represented by one,
two, three or four letters. The following words end in the same phoneme (with
the corresponding letters underlined):
to
shoe
through
phonological awareness
awareness of sounds within words - demonstrated for
example in the ability to generate rhyme and alliteration, and in segmenting
and blending component sounds.
phrase
A phrase is a group of words that act as one unit. So
dog is
a word, but the dog, a big dog or that dog over there are all phrases. Strictly
speaking, a phrase can also consist of just one word. For example, in the
sentence Dogs are nice, 'dogs' and 'nice' are both one-word phrases.
A phrase can function as a noun, an adjective or an
adverb:
|
|
a
noun phrase |
a
big dog,
my last holiday |
|
|
an
adjectival phrase |
(she's
not) as old as you, (I'm) really hungry |
|
|
an
adverbial phrase |
(they
left) five minutes ago, (she walks) very slowly |
If a phrase begins with a preposition (like in a
hurry, along
the lane),
it can be called a prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase can be
adjectival or adverbial in meaning:
|
|
adjectival |
(I'm)
in a hurry, (the man) with long hair |
|
|
adverbial |
(they
left) on Tuesday, (she lives) along the lane |
plural
see singular
poem
a text which uses features such as rhythm, rhyme or syntax and vocabulary to convey ideas in an
intense way. Poets may also use alliteration, figurative language and other techniques.
Prose may sometimes be poetic in effect.
portmanteau
a word made up from blending two others: swurse =
swear + curse; picture + dictionary = pictionary; smoke + fog = smog; breakfast
+ lunch = brunch.
predicate
The predicate is that part of a sentence which is not
the subject but which gives information about the subject. So, in the sentence Clare
went to school, 'Clare' is the subject and 'went to school' is the predicate.
prefix
A prefix is a morpheme which can be added to the
beginning of a word to change its meaning. For example:
inedible
disappear
supermarket
unintentional
preposition
A preposition is a word like at, over, by and with. It is usually followed
by a noun phrase. In the examples, the preposition and the following noun
phrase are underlined:
We got home at midnight.
Did you come here by car?
Are you coming with me?
They jumped over a fence.
What's the name of this street?
I fell asleep during the film.
Prepositions often indicate time (at
midnight/during the film/on Friday), position (at the station/in
a field)
or direction (to the station/over a fence). There are many other
meanings, including possession (of this street), means (by
car) and
accompaniment (with me).
In questions and a few other structures, prepositions
often occur at the end of the clause:
Who did you go out with?
We haven't got enough money to live on.
I found the book I was looking for.
In formal style, the preposition can go before whom
or which
(with
whom, about
which etc):
With whom do you wish to speak?
Many prepositions (eg on, over, up) can also be used as adverbs
(without
a following noun or pronoun):
We got on the bus. (preposition - followed by a noun
phrase)
The bus stopped and we got on. (adverb - no following noun or
pronoun)
procedural text
see instruction text
pronoun
There are several kinds of pronoun, including:
personal pronouns
I/me, you, he/him, she/her, we/us, they/them, it
I like him. They don't want it.
possessive pronouns
mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, its
Is this book yours or mine?
reflexive pronouns
myself, herself, themselves etc
I hurt myself. Enjoy yourselves!
indefinite pronouns
someone, anything, nobody, everything etc
Someone wants to see you about something.
interrogative pronouns
who/whom, whose, which, what
Who did that? What happened?
relative pronouns
who/whom, whose, which, that
The person who did that É The thing that annoyed me was É
Many determiners can also be used as pronouns,
including this/that/these/those and the quantifiers (some, much etc). For example:
These are mine.
Would you like some?
Pronouns often 'replace' a noun or noun phrase and
enable us to avoid repetition:
I saw your father but I didn't speak to him. (= your father)
'We're going away for the weekend.' 'Oh, are you? That's nice.' (= the fact you're going
away)
proof-read
to check a piece of work thoroughly before final
publication.
prose
written language which does not follow poetic or
dramatic forms.
proverb
a saying, which may have changed little over time,
which states a belief about the world: the early bird catches the worm; too
many cooks spoil the broth; the grass is always greener on the other side.
pun
a play on words; use of words with similar sounds but
different meaning to humorous effect. For example, grave has two possible
meanings, which Shakespeare used in 'Romeo and Juliet'. Mercutio's final words
were: 'ask for me tomorrow And you shall find me a grave man'; red and read sound the same, so the
book is never red/the book is never read; I'm on a seafood diet: I see food and
I eat it. Puns
are often used in newspaper headlines.
punctuation
Punctuation is a way of marking text to help readers'
understanding. The most commonly used marks in English are: apostrophe, colon, comma, dash, ellipsis, exclamation mark, full stop, hyphen, semi-colon and speech marks (inverted commas).
A question mark is used at the end of an
interrogative sentence (eg Who was that?) or one whose function is a question
(eg You're leaving already?)
a form of oral poetry which has a very strong rhythm
and rapid pace. Associated with Caribbean and Afro-Caribbean cultures, has now
been assimilated into other literary traditions. Rap is often used in modern
music.
recount text
a text written to retell for information or
entertainment. A fictional narrative recount may consist of scene-setting, a
starting point, a problem, account and a conclusion. The language is
descriptive, and there may be dialogue. Characters are defined and often named.
A non-fiction recount may begin with a scene-setting
introduction, and then retell events in chronological order. An example of this
type of text would include writing about visits, newspaper accounts of an event
or a biography.
reference text
an information text organised in a clearly defined
way, for example alphabetically, and used for study purposes.
relative clause
A relative clause is one that defines or gives
information about somebody or something. Relative clauses typically begin with
relative pronouns (who/whom/whose/which/that):
Do you know the people who live in the house on
the corner? (defines 'the people')
The biscuits (that) Tom bought this morning have all gone. (defines 'the
biscuits')
Our hotel, which was only two minutes from the beach, was very nice. (gives more information
about the hotel)
renga
a series of haiku, each linked to the next by two
seven-syllable lines, sometimes written by different poets in turn, and forming
a series of complete poems.
report text
a non-chronological text written to describe or
classify. The text often begins with a general classification, moving to a
description of particular characteristics with a final summary. It is often
written in the continuous present tense with generalised participants (people,
cats, buildings). An example of this sort of text would include a report on
dinosaurs or Roman housing, a guide-book or a description of a scene.
rhetorical expression
an utterance in which the meaning intended by the
speaker/writer is an expression different from that which might be inferred by
a listener who is unaware of the conventions of the language; for example Do
you know his name? is a question which seems to require a yes/no response; in
fact, the speaker is asking What is his name? Rhetorical expressions are often
questions disguising imperatives: Would you like to get out your English
books? usually
means Get out your English books.
rhyme
A rhyme occurs when words share the same stressed
vowel phoneme, eg she/tea, way/delay and subsequent consonant(s) eg sheet/treat,
made/lemonade and final unstressed vowel eg laughter/after.
rhythm
Rhythm is the more or less regular alternation of
light beats and heavy beats (stresses) in speech or music. Some poetry uses
very regular rhythm patterns.
riddle
a question or statement, sometimes in rhyme, which
forms a puzzle to be solved by the reader/listener.
rime
that part of a syllable which contains the vowel and
final consonant or consonant cluster if there is one: at in cat; orn in
horn; ow in cow. Some words consist of rime only: or, ate, eel.
see onset
root word
a word to which prefixes and suffixes may be added to make
other words; for example in unclear, clearly, cleared, the root word is clear.
this word has two relevant meanings:
a. to look over a text very quickly,
trying to locate information by locating a key word;
b. a line of poetry which conforms to
the rhythm (metre) of the rest of the poem is said to scan.
segment
to break a word or part of a word down into its
component phonemes, for example: c-a-t; ch-a-t; ch-ar-t; g-r-ou-n-d;
s-k-i-n.
semi-colon (;)
A semi-colon can be used to separate two main clauses
in a
sentence:
I liked the book; it was a pleasure to read.
This could also be written as two separate sentences:
I liked the book. It was a pleasure to read.
However, where the two clauses are closely related in
meaning (as in the above example), a writer may prefer to use a semi-colon
rather than two separate sentences.
Semi-colons can also be used to separate items in a
list if these items consist of longer phrases. For example:
I need large, juicy tomatoes; half a pound of
unsalted butter; a kilo of fresh pasta, preferably tagliatelle; and a jar of
black olives.
In a simple list, commas are used.
sentence
A sentence can be simple, compound or complex.
A simple sentence consists of one clause:
It was late.
A compound sentence has two or more clauses joined by
and, or, but or so. The clauses are of
equal weight (they are both main clauses):
It was late but I wasn't tired.
A complex sentence consists of a main clause which
itself includes one or more subordinate clauses:
Although it was late, I wasn't tired. (subordinate clause
beginning with although underlined)
Simple sentences can also be grouped as follows
according to their structure:
declarative (for statements, suggestions, etc):
The class yelled in triumph. Maybe we could eat
afterwards.
interrogative (for questions, requests, etc):
Is your sister here? Could you show me how?
imperative (for commands, instructions, etc):
Hold this! Take the second left.
exclamative (for exclamations):
How peaceful she looks. What a pity!
In writing, we mark sentences by using a capital
letter at the beginning, and a full stop (or question mark or exclamation mark)
at the end.
shape poem
a poem in which the layout of the words reflects an
aspect of the subject. There is a huge variety of shape poems.
see calligrams, concrete poems
shared reading
in shared reading the teacher, as an expert reader,
models the reading process by reading the text to the learners. The text chosen
may be at a level which would be too difficult for the readers to read
independently. The teacher demonstrates use of cues and strategies such as
syntax, initial letter, re-reading. Learners have opportunities to join in with
the reading, singly or chorally, and are later encouraged to re-read part or
all of the text.
shared writing
a classroom process where the teacher models the
writing process for children: free from the physical difficulties of writing,
children can observe, and subsequently be involved in, planning, composition,
redrafting, editing and publishing through the medium of the teacher. Shared
writing is interactive in nature and is appropriate for teaching all forms and
genres.
simile
the writer creates an image in readers' minds by
comparing a subject to something else: as happy as a lark; as strong as an
ox. Many
similes are idiomatic: he smokes like a chimney.
singular and plural
Singular forms are used to refer to one thing, person
etc. For example: tree, student, party.
Many nouns (countable nouns) can be singular (only one) or plural (more than one). The
plural is usually marked by the ending -s: trees, students, parties.
Some plural forms are irregular. For example: children, teeth, mice.
Other nouns (mass nouns) do not normally occur in the
plural. For example: butter, cotton, electricity, money, happiness.
Verbs, pronouns, and determiners sometimes have different
singular and plural forms:
|
|
He
was late. |
They
were late. |
|
|
Where
is the key? Have you seen it? |
Where
are the keys? Have you seen them? |
|
|
Do
you like this hat? |
Do
you like these shoes? |
Note that they/them/their (plural words) are
sometimes used to refer back to singular words that don't designate a specific
person, such as anyone or somebody. In such cases, they usually means 'he or she':
If anyone wants to ask a question, they
can ask me later. (= he or she can ask me)
Did everybody do their homework?
Work with a partner. Ask them their name.
See also agreement, pronoun
skim
read to get an initial overview of the subject matter
and main ideas of a passage.
slang
words and phrases which are used in informal context,
often linked with certain regions or used by people identifying with particular
groups. May differentiate that group from others.
sonnet
a poem of 14 lines. May follow any rhyme scheme. Two
examples of rhyme schemes:
a. Petrarchan rhyme: a b b a a b b
a
followed by two or three other rhymes in remaining six lines;
b. Elizabethan rhyme: a b a b c d c
d e f e f g g
speech, speech marks
see direct speech and indirect speech
spelling log
a personal, ongoing record of words which are being
learnt. Pupils would decide, with the teacher's guidance, words to be learnt.
These words would be kept in a folder so the pupil can work on them during the
week with a partner or teacher, or at home. Once learnt, the words can be added
to the pupil's record.
standard English
Standard English is the variety of English used in
public communication, particularly in writing. It is the form taught in schools
and used by educated speakers. It is not limited to a particular region and can
be spoken with any accent.
There are differences in vocabulary and grammar
between standard English and other varieties. For example, we were
robbed and
look at those trees are standard English; we was robbed and look at them
trees are
non-standard.
To communicate effectively in a range of situations -
written and oral - it is necessary to be able to use standard English, and to
recognise when it is appropriate to use it in preference to any other variety.
Note that standard British English is not the only
standard variety; other English-speaking countries, such as the United States
and Australia, have their own standard forms.
see also agreement, dialect, double negative
stanza
a verse or set of lines of poetry, the pattern of
which is repeated throughout the poem.
story board
a plan for a visual text (video, film, etc) which
demonstrates the plot and critical events through a sequence of pictures.
Children may do a story board after reading to demonstrate comprehension;
story-boarding may also be used to plan a piece of writing.
subject and object
In the sentence John kicked the ball, the subject is 'John', and the object is 'the
ball'.
The subject is the person or thing about which
something is said. In sentences with a subject and an object, the subject
typically carries out an action, while the object is the person or thing
affected by the action. In declarative sentences (statements), the subject
normally goes before the verb; the object goes after the verb.
Some verbs (eg give, show, buy) can have two objects,
indirect and direct. For example:
She gave the man some money.
Here, 'some money' is the direct object (= what she
gave). 'The man' is the indirect object (= the person who receives the
direct object).
When a verb has an object, it is transitive, eg find
a job, like
chocolate,
lay the table. If it has no object, it is intransitive (eg go, talk, lie).
see also active and passive, complement
suffix
A suffix is a morpheme which is added to the end
of a word. There are two main categories:
a. An inflectional suffix changes the tense
or grammatical status of a word, eg from present to past (worked) or from singular to
plural (accidents).
b. A derivational suffix changes the word
class, eg from verb to noun (worker) or from noun to adjective (accidental).
syllable
Each beat in a word is a syllable. Words with only
one beat (cat, fright, jail) are called monosyllabic; words with more than
one beat (super, coward, superficiality) are polysyllabic.
synonym
words which have the same meaning as another word, or
very similar: wet/damp. Avoids overuse of any word; adds variety.
synopsis
a brief summary or outline of a paragraph, chapter or
book.
syntax
Syntax is the study of sentence structure, ie how words
are used together in a sentence.
Japanese poem based on the haiku but with two additional
lines giving a complete picture of an event or mood. Traditionally, when a
member of the Japanese court wrote a haiku for a friend, the receiver would add
two lines and return it, giving a total of five lines with 31 syllables in the
pattern 5 7 5 7 7.
tautology
use of an extra word in a phrase or sentence which
unnecessarily repeats an idea: this annual event is staged yearly,
this
unacceptably poor work is of a low standard.
tense
A tense is a verb form that most often indicates
time. English verbs have two basic tenses, present and past, and each of these
can be simple or continuous. For example:
|
|
present |
past |
|
|
I play (simple) |
I
played (simple) |
|
|
I
am playing (continuous) |
I
was playing (continuous) |
Additionally, all these forms can be perfect (with have):
|
|
present
perfect |
past
perfect |
|
|
I
have played (perfect) |
I
had played (perfect) |
|
|
I
have been playing (perfect continuous) |
I
had been playing (perfect continuous) |
English has no specific future tense. Future time can
be expressed in a number of ways using will or present tenses. For example:
John will arrive tomorrow.
John will be arriving tomorrow.
John is going to arrive tomorrow.
John is arriving tomorrow.
John arrives tomorrow.
see also verb
text
language organised to communicate. Includes written,
spoken and electronic forms.
text type
this term describes texts which share a purpose: to
inform/persuade/describe. Whole texts or parts of texts with specific features
- patterns of language, structure, vocabulary - which help them achieve this
purpose may be described as belonging to a particular text type. These
attributes are not obligatory, but are useful in discussing text and in
supporting development of a range of writing skills.
Texts may consist of mixed genres: for example, a
guide-book may contain procedural text (the path or route) and report
(information about exhibits).
theme
the subject of a piece of writing. This may not be
explicitly stated, but can be deduced by the reader. For example, many
traditional stories have similar themes: the triumph of good over evil, cunning
over strength, kindness over beauty.
thesaurus
a reference text which groups words by meaning. A
thesaurus can help writers to select words, consider the full range of
alternatives and vary words which are used frequently: said, went, nice.
trigraph
three letters representing one phoneme: high;
fudge.
A verb is a word that expresses an action, a
happening, a process or a state. It can be thought of as a 'doing' or 'being'
word. In the sentence Mark is tired and wants to go to bed, 'is', 'wants' and 'go' are verbs. Sometimes two
or more words make up a verb phrase, such as are going, didn't want, has been waiting.
Most verbs (except modal verbs, such as can or will) have four or five
different forms. For example:
|
base form or infinitive |
|
+ -s |
|
+ -ing (present participle) |
|
simple |
|
past participle |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
wait |
|
waits |
|
waiting |
|
waited |
||
|
make |
|
makes |
|
making |
|
made |
||
|
drive |
|
drives |
|
driving |
|
drove |
|
driven |
A verb can be present or past:
I wait/she waits (present)
I waited/she
waited (past)
Most verbs can occur in simple or continuous forms (be
+ -ing):
I make (simple present)/I'm making (present continuous)
she drove (simple past)/she was driving (past continuous)
A verb can also be perfect (with have):
I have made/I have been making (present perfect)
he had driven/he had been driving (past perfect)
If a verb is regular, the simple past and the past
participle are the same, and end in -ed. For example:
wanted
played
answered
Verbs that do not follow this pattern are irregular.
For example:
make/made
catch/caught
see/saw/seen
come/came/come
see also active and passive, auxiliary verbs, infinitive, modal verbs,
participle, person, tense
voice
see active and passive
vowel
a phoneme produced without audible friction or
closure. Every syllable contains a vowel. A vowel phoneme may be represented by
one or more letters. These may be vowels (maid, or a combination of
vowels and consonants (start; could).
The main word classes are verb, noun, adjective, adverb, pronoun, determiner, preposition and conjunction. These are all dealt
with separately in this glossary.
Note that a word can belong to more than one class.
For example:
|
|
play |
verb (I play) or noun (a play) |
|
|
fit |
noun (a fit), verb (they fit) or adjective (I'm fit) |
|
|
until |
preposition (until Monday) or conjunction (until I come back) |
|
|
like |
verb (I like) or preposition (do it like this) |
|
|
hard |
adjective (it's hard work) or adverb (I work hard) |
|
|
that |
determiner (that book) or pronoun (who did that?) or conjunction (he said that he É) |
writing frame
a structured prompt to support writing. A writing
frame often takes the form of opening phrases of paragraphs, and may include
suggested vocabulary. It often provides a template for a particular text type.
Further
reading
The Linguistics Association maintain a page of further information at http://www.art.man.ac.uk/english/staff/dd/reading.htm